NGO "ANOTHER WAY" (STICHTING BAKENS VERZET), NETHERLANDS, SUSTAINABLE INTEGRATED SELF-FINANCING DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AND ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT TECHNOLOGIES

The chosen methodology where project activities are implemented on areas having low inherent potential to support living biomass without human intervention is AR-AMS-0005 (Version 2, 8 April 2009).

Project activities are implemented on areas listed in (i) to (iv) below [see AR-AMS-0005, art. 1]. Project participants have to provide evidence/data showing the selected project sites meet the local/national criteria for these categories using information from verifiable sources and/or expert opinion as appropriate:

(i) Sand dunes;

(ii) Bare lands;

(iii) Contaminated or mine spoils lands;

(iv) Highly alkaline or saline soils.

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification was adopted in Paris on 17^th June 1994 and entered into force on 26^th December 1996. Its objectives, set out in Article 2, are :

“1. The objective of this Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas.

“2. Achieving this objective will involve long-term integrated strategies that focus simultaneously, in affected areas, on improved productivity of land, and the rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources, leading to improved living conditions, in particular at the community level. ”

Article 7 or the convention gives priority to the situation in Africa, including (under article 10) the incorporation of “long-term strategies to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought, emphasize implementation and be integrated with national policies for sustainable development;” and giving “particular attention to the implementation of preventive measures for lands that are not yet degraded or which are only slightly degraded; ” “through sustainable management of natural resources; sustainable agricultural practices;”.

Annex I of the Convention refers specifically to Regional Implementation in Africa, article 3 of which refers specifically to “the widespread poverty prevalent in most affected countries, the large number of least developed countries among them, and their need for significant amounts of external assistance, in the form of grants and loans on concessional terms, to pursue their development objectives; ”

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and CILSS published the sub-regional action programme against the desertification in West Africa and Tchad, in May 1999. This document is available in French only. It provides for extensive cooperation at sub-regional level amongst the Community members in eight priority sectors, but does not refer to specific practical actions.

The EU-Africa Infrastructure Partnership was launched in Addis Ababa on 24 October 2007. This led to the First Action Plan (2008-2010) for the implementation of the Africa-EU Strategic Partnership. under the Africa-EU Partnership on Climate Change. The sole objective of the Priority Action 2 of Part 6 of the plan is to:

“ Combat desertification and improve the livelihoods of the inhabitants of the countries of the Sahara and Sahel zones of Africa.”

The expected outcomes are :

“Progress towards reversal of desert encroachment and soil degradation; Improvement of micro-climatic conditions and reduction of land degradation.”

Activities include :

“Identify the relevant activities in the “Green Wall Initiative” adapted to the national and regional context; [The Green Wall for the Sahara Initiative, proposed by the Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture of the The African Union Commission, Addis Ababa, May 2006.]

• Enhance environmental sustainability within the framework of regional and international environmental agreements;

• Advance the implementation of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification;

• Improve the knowledge on land degradation and desertification;

• Control land degradation, promote sustainable land management with a view to integrate land management issues in national development strategies, including poverty reduction strategy papers (PRSPs), and increase land productivity and food production;

• Promote integrated natural resource management and conserve biological diversity;

• Address the problems of land degradation and increasing aridity at all relevant levels to respond to local needs and build on local and individual efforts and successes;

• Create awareness and promote wider public involvement in arresting desertification in a sustainable manner;

• Identify and promote alternative livelihoods and productive systems for the populations affected by desertification.”

The fight against desertification has been linked with the Jatropha plant (Jatropha curcas). This plant has a number of features making it interesting for action against desertification, but its cultivation is controversial because of the claims made about its suitability for the production of bio-fuels. The plant has been widely discussed in relation to its “business” potential, where it became a hype, rather than for its inherent ecological properties. These aspects are reviewed in Jongenschaap R.E. et al, Claims and Facts on Jatropha Curcas L., Report 158, Plant Research International, Wageningen University, Wageningen and Stichting Het Groene Woudt, Laren, October 2007 published at the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) website.

For a more up to date review of the Jatropha issue, see Pohl. C., Jatropha : money doesn’t grow on trees – ten reasons why jatropha is neither a profitable nor a sustainable investment, Agrofuels and corporates, issue 120, Friends of the Earth International, Amsterdam, December 2010.

Jatropha is interesting for projects in areas with low potential to support biomass because, if sown as seed, it produces a thick primary tap root with 4 lateral roots and straight secondary roots. If it is derived from cuttings, the tap roots do not develop, and the plant grows only secondary roots. Within the framework of integrated development projects, all plants would therefore be grown from seed. In that case they would start producing seeds (fruit) after two years. Production of fruit would then continues for up to 50 years and more.

The plant grows rapidly to reach a height of 4-5 meters, and even 15 meters in suitable ground conditions. It some areas it is considered a weed. For this reason its use has been banned in some areas of Australia.

Claims concerning rainfall conditions necessary for the survival of Jatropha vary widely. Some indications from India put it as low as 250 mm. For work against desertification, a minimum of 400 mm may be assumed. After the first year following transplanting, little plant husbandry is needed until harvesting starts. During the first year, outside of the rainy season, the plants need to be watered twice a week. This requirement must always be remembered as the water must come from somewhere. The application competes with other water requirements as set out in applications 02-05 .

The plant is widely used in some African countries, for example Mali, as hedges, to protect crops. Jatropha is useful for this purpose because it is in general not fit for human or animal consumption, and animals keep away from it. This also helps to avoid conflicts between herders and local farmers. In Mali, Jatropha hedges have been reported as producing about 1 ton of seed annually per kilometre of hedge. Because it is not attractive to animals no action is needed to protect the plantations. This is especially useful where plantations are a long way away from human settlements.

The press cake residues remaining after oil-pressing can be used as fertiliser.

Jatropha wood is of poor quality even for fire-wood, but waste material could be used for the production of mini-briquettes for improved cook stoves.

Jatropha trees reach maturity after about 4 years after transplantation, 6 years from the sowing of the seed. Following transplantation, growth of dry matter is reported to be between 4,4 and 22,2 tonnes per hectare per year, or between 2,3 and 11,1 tonnes of carbon x 44/12, or between 8 and 40 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per hectare per year. Given the conditions under which the plant would be used in this application, the lowest level of 8 tonnes of CO2 per hectare per year is assumed. At this rate, CDM income might be about € 154 per hectare per year, or € 770 per hectare over the five years of carbon build-up following transplantation. The area needed to provide 15.000 tonnes CO2, the maximum for a small-scale project under methodology AR-AMS-0005 would therefore be about 1875 hectares, or 7.5 hectares for each of 250 local development units. Where the project objective is to prepare barren land for use for cropping purposes after five years, the area covered would be up to three times greater. Jatropha components are toxic and help fight some crop pests. At the same time they are themselves not free from all pests.

Jatropha trees in marginal areas with low rainfall will tend to be stunted and slow-growing. While a typical density would be about 4m2 per plant (2500 plants per hectare), this could be reduced to up to 9m2 (+/- 1250 plants) in arid areas. Jatropha sown as hedges and hedgerows rather than as plantations could be planted with a higher density. In any case, density should be such that 1875 hectares of planted area could be expected to produce a gross CDM income of € 288.750 per year for a total of € 1.443.750 per project area over 5 years. This is 38,5% of the initial capital investment needed for each non-pastoralist project area, and about 26% of that for pastoralist project areas.

Since the period for build-up of carbon sinks is limited to five years, certificates covering the CDM funds should become available towards the end of the sixth year of project operation.

Assuming a sub-regional plan (for instance in West- and Central Africa) with 2500 individual integrated development plans, the gross expected CDM income at sub-regional would be to the order of € 3.607.500.000.

During the first five years, the plants would be left to act as carbon sinks. This period may need to be even longer in very dry conditions. Fruit and leaves would be left in situ to serve as mulch for the soil. After that, carbon sinks would be maintained. Leaves would be used for mulch. Pruned material, seed cake, and husks would be recycled as biomass for mini-briquettes for cooking purposes. Oil recovered from the seeds would be used locally to drive equipment with motors adapted for direct use with bio-fuels. Seed production is to the order of 2-3 tonnes per hectare. Assuming 2 tonnes of seed per hectare, inedible oil produced would be about 400 litres per hectare since 6 kg of seed produces 1.2 litres of oil. Warning ! In dry areas, seed production may well be lower still. An integrated development project area with 1875 hectares of planted area would therefore produce about 650 tons of or 650.000 litres of inedible oil per year. The value of this as replacement of imported fuel may be to the order of € 550.000 per year. This is a benefit for the costs and benefits analysis of integrated developments projects. It has nothing to do with CDM revenues.

Since all work is carried out under the local money system set up in each integrated development project area, this result is acceptable for local fuel oil consumption there. It is not an economic proposition for export outside of the project area. Where climatic conditions are better, Jatropha cannot compete in production with other oil-producing crops. Jatropha should never be used as a source of bio-fuel in competition with (substitution of) food crops either in terms of land use or in terms of dedication of labour.

The purpose of Jatropha cultivation is to set up possibilities for protected cultivation of food crops for local consumption in marginal areas. Direct income from plant oil should be considered a by-product. This conclusion is confirmed in the 2009 paper by Wahl N. et al, Economic Viability of Jatropha Curcas L. Plantations in Northern Tanzania, World Agro-Forestry Centre, Working Paper 97, Nairobi, 2009.

Jatropha is by no means the only plant which can be used for protection against desertification. For CDM financing, possibilities are limited to plants qualifying as trees within the national definitions of forests. Species such as agaves, cacti, or panic grass (panicum turgidum) do not qualify for this purpose. They could form useful crops for cultivation inside Jatropha hedgerows.

One species that does qualify as an alternative is the Christ's Thorn (Ziziphus spina-christae) the native area for which includes North and West Africa. In Niger it is common. It will grow in areas within a rainfall range of 100-600 mm. Its temperature tolerance is greater than 44 degrees C. (mean monthly maximum). The plant provides edible raw fruit and raw seeds thought to be rich in carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals. Its fruits are appreciated in Zinder (Niger), where it is sold at the market, in Agadez and the area around N'guimi. Its leaves are good for animal fodder. Goats especially enjoy the lower leaves and branches, and camels clean the trees up efficiently at the higher levels.

The Christ’s thorn is a thorny, erect, tree growing to a height of up to 12m. and more. The Christ’s Thorn is a real pioneer. Its slow growth makes it unattractive to CDM projects looking for a quick return. It is ideal for long term CDM investments for the fight against desertification within the framework of integrated development projects where labour costs are covered under the local money systems set up.

Where Christ’s thorn plantations are used to create a barrier to desertification, they must be protected against animals. This can be a problem in isolated areas far from villages, where unattended photovoltaic fencing systems could be permanently at risk. Water needs to be provided only during the establishment period. If this takes place during the wet season, the need for water servicing is expected to be limited.

Another candidate is the Tagart bush. (Maerua crassifolia) It is a bush or small tree that grows to a height of 2-5 meters. In the report below, the height is given as maximum 10 m. It is native to the entire Sahara region, including Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria and Chad. In Niger it can be found in the Aïr Mountains, West Termit, Zinder and Aderbissinat. Its approximate required annual rainfall range is 100-700 mm. Its temperature tolerance exceeds 42 degrees C. (mean monthly maximum). Its fruit is edible. Its leaves can be eaten cooked and are used by villagers in Niger in sauces. It is thought to be rich in protein, vitamins and iron.

This is a description of the Tagart bush taken from the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew (UK) as published by JSTOR Plant Science :

“A small tree to 10 m high of the dry savanna and desert, occurring in Mauritania and Senegal and eastwards across the northern Sahel zone of the Region to E Africa, Egypt and Arabia. The wood is whitish, very hard and is used to make handles for weapons, implements, ploughs and water-troughs in the northern part of the Region (2, 4), chew-sticks in Ghana (4) and staves and toothpicks in Morocco (6). It burns with a nauseating smell (2, 4). The ash furnishes a black dye used by the Masai of E Africa to colour their shields (8).The leaves enter into human diet in Senegal and the leafy twigs yield a good forage for stock but horses will not browse it (1). It is especially of value in the dry season. The flowering shoots are much appreciated by camels (2). Crushed leaves are used in the Central Sahara as a febrifuge and an infusion of dried leaves for arresting vomiting (5) and for stomach-disorders (2). Leaves in decoction are considered in the western Sahara to be a specific against skin-affections of the head and leaves pounded with the bark and taken in draught in hot milk constitute a cure for fever and toothache (6). They are said to be usable like those of Cadaba farinosa Forssk. (3). The calcium content of leaves from Sudan are reported to be very high (4).The fruit is edible and is reported eaten in the northern part of the Region (2) in Mauritania, where it is known as eb nembe (Chevalier fide 3), and in Hoggar (5).The bark is used in the Kordofan and Darfur area of Sudan for purification of water (7).”

Like the Christ’s thorn, Tagart bush plantations would need to be protected against animals.

Rates of carbon fixation (where known) of the Christ’s thorn, the Tagart bush, and other pioneering plants need further study during the drafting phase for individual projects.

The proposed demonstration projects can be repeated as and when labour and water supplies become available in each integrated development project area.

Menu for : 09. CDM funding indications for the selected applications and methodologies.

09-01. CO2 savings through the reduced use of non-renewable biomass for cooking purposes through the introduction of improved stoves.

09-02. Demonstration project for the recovery of forest lands and natural parks and reserves using traditional species.

09.03. Afforestation activities in settlements as defined for the distributed planting of fruit and nut trees and similar.

09-04. Small-scale agro-forestry activities – such as distributed bamboo plantations on grasslands and croplands.

09-05. Small-scale agro-forestry activities – distributed demonstration plantations for practical purposes for local use, including but not limited to Moringa plantations on marginal lands.

09-06. Demonstration afforestation and/or reforestation (AR) projects on wetlands using traditional species.

09-07. Demonstration afforestation and/or reforestation projects on lands having low inherent potential to support living biomass.

09-08. Use of renewable biomass instead of non-renewable biomass with improved cook stoves.

09-09. Recycling of human waste to avoid the use of industrial fertilisers.

09-10. Methane recovery from animal waste for cooking and lighting purposes especially in pastoralist areas.

09-12. Replacement of non-renewable electrical, diesel- and battery-driven sources for mechanical equipment such as pumps and mills and, where applicable, pubic lighting systems.